Abstract
The Communicative Approach in language teaching originates from the purpose of language as communication. According to this model, the main objective of communicative language teaching (CLT) is to develop what Hymes (1972) referred to as "communicative competence." The work of Canale and Swain is an expansion of Hymes' model which attempts to “determine the feasibility and practicality of developing what we shall call the ‘communicative competence’ of students" (Canale and Swain, 1980, p.1). Accordingly, Bachman’s framework (1990) is an extension of earlier models “in that it attempts to characterize the processes by which the various components interact with each other and with the context in which language use occurs” (Bachman, 1990, p.81). The literature on language teaching suggests that the amount of use of CLT principles in EFL/ESL textbooks varies depending on how the textbook designers and developers conceptualize the principles. As far as the researcher knows, no study has been done on the amount of represention of CLT principles in high school and private institute textbooks.  Because textbooks play a pivotal role in the realm of language teaching and learning and they are looked upon as an indispensable vehicle for foreign language learning, this study aimed at investigating the extent to which  the Iranian high school and private institute textbooks represent the CLT principles. To this end, the textbooks of the Iranian high schools and private institutes were analyzed descriptively and inferentially. The analysis of the data indicated that while high school textbooks are not conductive to CLT implementation, private institute textbooks represent the CLT principles to a great extent.

Key Words: Materials Development, Textbooks, Textbook Evaluation, Communicative Language Ability, CLT, EFL Institutes

Introduction

Textbooks play a pivotal role in language classrooms in all types of educational institutions - public schools, colleges, and language schools - all over the world. In some contexts, teachers are free to choose their own textbooks. The vast majority of teachers, however, have textbooks suggested, prescribed, or assigned to them (Garinger, 2001).

   According to Riazi (2003, p. 52), "textbooks play a very crucial role in the realm of language teaching and learning and are considered the next important factor (element) [italics added] in the second/foreign language clasroom after the teacher." The textbook is a tool in the hands of the teacher, and the teacher must know not only how to use it, but also how useful it can be. The wealth of published materials for English language teaching (ELT) available in the market makes selecting the right coursebook a challenging task. Moreover, the selection of a particular core textbook signals an executive educational decision in which there is considerable professional, financial, and even political investment (Sheldon, 1988).

   In some situations, textbooks serve as the basis for much of the language input learners receive and the language practice that occurs in the classroom. They may provide the basis for the content of the lessons, the balance of skills taught, and the kinds of language tasks students acively use. In other situations, textbooks may serve primarily to suplement the teacher's instruction. For learners, textbooks may provide a major source of contact they have with the target language, excluding the input provided by the teacher. In the case of novice teachers, textboooks may also be utilized as a form of teacher training; that is, they provide ideas on how to plan and teach lessons as well as formats that teachers can use. Much of the language teaching that occurs throughout the world today could not take place without the extensive use of commercial textbooks. Learning how to use and adapt textbooks is hence an important part of a teacher's professional knowledge (Richards, 2001).

   Hutchinson and Torres (1994, p. 232) identify four ways in which textbooks can help in times of educational change: first as “a vehicle for teacher and learner training”; second because they provide “support and relief” from the burden of looking for materials; third by providing “as complete a picture as possible” of “what the change will look like”; and fourth through the psychological support they give to teachers. However, fulfillment of these goals, especially the first and the third, depends on the approach and quality of the textbook. The materials may not be in tune with the new kind of teaching being encouraged, following instead the methodology already commonly being practiced; alternatively, the materials may be so difficult to use that teachers are unable to follow them as intended, making them revert to their previous practice. In either case, rather than agents of change, books will be “agents of conservatism,” reducing the likelihood of teachers trying out new, alternative approaches and methods (Garinger, 2001).

No doubt, a coursebook is looked upon as an indispensable vehicle for foreign language acquisition whose validity and significance are seldom impugned. Many students working with a coursebook feel secure and have a sense of progress and achievement. They always have a book to relate to; they are not groping in the dark. Consequently, they become more confident and satisfied, as they tackle the target language within a certain framework. Furthermore, a textbook provides them with the opportunity to go back and revise. They can also use the textbook for self-study and as a reference tool. Besides, a well-illustrated book, equipped with eye-catching phrases and sensational pictures or titles, is preferable to tons of photocopied material, which teachers and students often take a dim view of.

We may think of textbook evaluation as the following stages in the process of second/foreign language instruction by teachers, administrators, and ELT experts, either individually or in collaboration:

1. Selection of textbooks for a newly started language program.
2. Evaluation of books already in use in a language program to identify their strengths and weaknesses.
3. Evaluation of books after a course of instruction with the objective of retaining, updating, and/or substituting the books (Riazi, 2003).

Because of the importance of textbooks, the purpose of this paper is to identify the amount of implementation of the CLT principles in Iranian high school and private institute textbooks. Based on the results of the study, some suggestions will be offered to improve the textbooks in use.

   In the following two sections, textbook evaluation schemes in ESL contexts are first presented. Then studies done in Iran are reported.  

Textbook evaluation schemes

During the last three decades, different textbook evaluation models (schemes) have been proposed in order to evaluate the existing English textbooks prepared for ESL/EFL learners. These schemes mostly focus on designing certain principles and criteria for such an evaluation. Among these, Tucker (1975), Sheldon (1988), Ur (1996), and Littlejohn (1996) are the most significant ones dominating the ESL field. Table 1 presents the second/foreign language materials evaluation checklists and schemes developed in the three consecutive decades of the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s (Riazi, 2003). This, of course, is not intended to be a complete list of all the checklists developed in the said decades; however, it represents the major ones.

Table 1. Textbook evaluation schemes in three decades

Research on Textbook Evaluation in Iran

In Iran several projects have been carried out to evaluate textbooks, among which Amerian (1987), Kheibari (1999), Shahedi (2002), Ansary and Babaii (2002), Yarmohammadi (2002), and Amalsaleh (2004) are typical examples. Amerian (1987) conducted a comparative study of the first two books of Right Path to English and Books One and Two of the Graded English series based on Tucker's model. The results of the study indicated that there are no significant differences between the two series. This is because it can be claimed that the two series represent the structural syllabus and design.

Kheibari (1999) modified Tucker's model and applied it to the five volumes of Teaching Persian to Speakers of Other Languages (TPSOL) textbooks. She claimed that the philosophy behind the changes is due to the recent developments in language teaching. Results revealed that the books follow the Grammar Translation Method which attaches the least attention to role-playing, different kinds of tasks, or language skills such as speaking.  

Shahedi (2001) analyzed one of the leading texts in TPSOL and stated that in these series, not enough attention has been attached to the four skills of the language. Moreover, the manner and amount of the presentation of vocabulary and pronunciation are not in harmony with language learners' proficiency levels.  

Ansary and Babaii (2002) analyzed a corpus of 10 EFL/ESL textbook reviews plus 10 EFL/ESL textbook evaluation checklists and outlined what they perceived to be the common core features of standard EFL/ESL textbooks. The major categories comprise approach, content presentation, physical make-up and administration concerns. Each set of major features of EFL/ESL textbooks consists of a number of subcategories. They concluded the article mentioning that not all of these characteristics would be present in each and every textbook.

Yarmohammadi (2002) evaluated the senior high school textbooks based on a revised version of Tucker's model. He came to the conclusion that these textbooks suffer from a lot of shortcomings: 1. they are not authentic; 2. English and Persian names are used interchangeably; and 3. oral skills are ignored. At the end, some suggestions were proposed to remedy the shortcomings. 

Finally, Amalsaleh (2004) examined the representation of social factors in three types of textbooks, including junior and senior high school textbooks, based on Van Leeuwen's model (1996). According to the results, generally, the textbooks demonstrated a deferential representation of social factors that tended to portray female as performers belonging to a home context and having limited job opportunities in society. In particular, junior and senior high school textbooks tended to shape normative views of gender and class relations in which a middle-class urban male was considered to be the norm.    

   Regarding the studies mentioned above, a comprehensive study is still urgently needed to allow a subsequent assessment of the amount of use of CLT principles in the Iranian educational system with respect to the textbooks because of the following reasons: 1) Textbooks are considered as one of the key variables in any educational system, including the Iranian one; and 2) CLT is a dominant approach or method all over the world. Therefore, these two factors are worthy to be investigated more.

Objectives of the study
This study investigates the extent to which high school and EFL institute textbooks represent CLT principles. The first objective of the study deals with the analysis of high school textbooks from the perspective of representing CLT features. The second objective is to find out to what extent EFL institute textbooks represent CLT features. Third, the current study aims at comparing the amount of representation of CLT features in the textbooks of each domain. 

Research questions
Regarding the purpose of the study, the following research questions are posed:
1. To what extent do the high school textbooks represent the CLT features?
2. To what extent do the EFL institute textbooks represent the CLT features?
3. Are there any significant differences among high school and institute textbooks in terms of representing CLT features?

   Benefiting from the implications of the literature review and being in line with the objectives and research questions of the study, the researcher designed a textbook evaluation scheme, in which the majority of its items have been selected from the literature review on CLT, taking into account its main features.     
           
Methods
This section presents the design and methods of the study. In this respect, materials, instruments, and data collection and analysis procedures are discussed.    

Materials
The Interchange Series (Richards, 2005a; Richards, Hull & Proctor, 2005a; Richards, Hull & Proctor, 2005b; Richards, Hull & Proctor, 2005c) and the English High School textbooks 1, 2 and 3 (Birjandi, Soheili, Nowroozi & Mahmoodi, 2000; Birjandi, Nowroozi & Mahmoodi, 2002a; Birjandi, Nowroozi & Mahmoodi, 2002b) comprised the materials of the study. These materials were analyzed by twenty experienced teachers of the two domains, using the evaluation scheme to determine the extent to which the Iranian textbooks tap the CLT principles.    

Unit structure and organization of New Interchange

The exercises in each unit are grouped into two sections; these are referred to as "Cycle 1" and "Cycle 2" in the teaching notes, each having a specific topic, grammar point, and function. A cycle is a self-contained sequence of exercises that usually consists of the introduction of a new topic through a “Snapshot” or “Word Power” exercise; a conversation that introduces the new grammar structure; a grammar focus that provides controlled practice; pair work, group work, roleplay exercises, and a listening exercise. Also, in each unit there is a pronunciation exercise, a writing activity, and an “Interchange Activity” note. Finally, there is an interesting reading exercise that ends Cycle 2 (Richards, 2005b).

Unit structure and organization of high school textbooks

The major parts of high school English textbooks are as follows: word study (new words and expressions); reading comprehension; “Speak Out”; “Write It Down”; “Language Function”; and “Pronunciation Practice.”

Instruments (textbook evaluation scheme)

The two series of textbooks (high school and institutes’ English textbooks) utilized in the public and private institutes were evaluated based on a hybrid of available textbook evaluation schemes considering the CLT features in mind (Davison, 1975; Tucker, 1975; Daoud and Celce-Murcia, 1979; Williams, 1983; Sheldon, 1988; Skierso, 1991; Cunningsworth, 1995; Ur, 1996; Littlejohn, 1998 ) to determine the extent to which they take into consideration issues such as the provision of opportunities for more authentic use of the language, attention to learners' needs, and contexts of learning, which are among typical principles derived from the communicative language teaching approach.

Validity and reliability of the scheme

In order to determine the validity of the instrument, the researcher randomized the 30 items of the textbook evaluation scheme and distributed them among 40 teachers of high schools and private institutes. Having collected the data, the researchers analyzed the data to calculate the validity coefficients in terms of factor analysis. The following factors were determined:

Table 2. Confirmatory factor analysis of the questionnaire

   In addition, the validity of the proposed evaluation scheme has been confirmed by the experienced faculty members of the Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics at Shiraz University. Moreover, based on the data gathered for the present study, the overall internal consistency of the scheme was calculated using Cronbach alpha, which turned out to be 0.80.

Data collection and analysis procedures

The data obtained based on the textbook evaluation schemes were analyzed descriptively to determine the trend of the textbooks in terms of principles representing CLT. In addition, inferential statistics of the data is presented.   

Findings of the textbook evaluation

This part concerns the textbook evaluation in the two domains on the basis of the five principles of CLT. First the descriptive statistics for the two domains are shown, followed by presentation of the inferential statistics of the results. To illustrate better the pattern of the different criteria in the textbooks analyzed, the first two alternatives (Excellent and Good) and the last two ones (Weak and Totally Lacking) were combined. Tables 3 and 4 present the amount of importance attached to each criterion in public and private institute textbooks respectively. 

Table 3. Descriptive statistics of public school textbooks in terms of the CLT principles

   As the table shows, the five principles of the CLT are represented to a lesser extent in the high school textbooks. In other words, the CLT principles are assigned a low rank in these textbooks. This might be one of the reasons why the school teachers do not use the CLT principles in their classes. Table 4 presents the amount of representation of the same five principles in the private institute textbooks.  

Table 4. Descriptive statistics of private institute textbooks in terms of the CLT principles

   In contrast to high school textbooks, private institute textbooks highly represent the CLT principles; that is, the five principles of CLT are present in the textbooks of this domain to a great extent. Table 5 shows the mean and standard deviation of the textbook analysis in high school and private institute textbooks.     

Table 5. Basic descriptive statistics for the public school textbooks

   Since the overall mean is three and a half standard deviations below the neutral point (90), it can be concluded that the CLT principles are missing in the textbooks of the high schools. However, regarding the textbooks of the private institutes, because the overall mean is more than five standard deviations above the neutral point (90), it can be concluded that these textbooks represent the CLT principles to a great extent. The results are depicted schematically in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Public school and private institute textbooks

The following interview conducted with the author of the private institute textbooks (Interchange Series) demonstrates the same trend.
Interview Question: What are the principles the Interchange series based on?  
    
Author Richards stated that Interchange is based on a communicative approach to teaching, the principles of which can be summarized as follows:

• Make real communication the focus of language learning
• Create opportunities for communication, interaction and negotiation of meaning through activities such as information sharing, problem solving and role play
• Provide opportunities for learners to experiment and try out what they know
• Provide opportunities for learners to develop both accuracy and fluency
• Link the different skills of speaking, reading, listening, and writing
• Link the learning of grammar to communicative tasks
• Choose content that relates to students’ lives and interests
• Encourage students to personalize learning by applying what they have learned to their own lives (retrieved from

http://www.professorjackrichards.com/interview.htm?
http://www.professorjackrichards.com/pages/interview-content-email.htm~content) 
Table 6 contrasts the results of the two analyses inferentially.
Table 6. Independent samples t-test for the textbook evaluation

Table 6 indicates that there is a significant and meaningful difference between the two textbooks analyzed in the two domains.
   In order to find out whether the differences among the means of the five principles of CLT in each domain are significant or not, one-way ANOVA was run. Wherever the differences were significant, a Scheffé test was used to show where the differences were.  

Table 7

D.F: Degree of Freedom, SS: Sum of Squares, MS: Mean of Squares, F: F-test, Sig: Significant 

   Table 7 shows that there is a significant and meaningful difference among the CLT principles in terms of the degree they are used in the high school textbooks. Table 8 shows where the differences are.

Table 8. Scheffé test for Table 7

   Table 8 shows the significant differences among the five principles of CLT. Table 9 presents one-one ANOVA to indicate whether there is a significant difference among the CLT principles in the private institute textbooks or not.

Table 9. One-way ANOVA for the factors of private institute textbooks

Discussion
The textbook evaluation demonstrates there is a radical difference between the two types of textbooks in the two domains. The high school textbooks are reading and grammar based. This may because materials development and syllabus design are determined by the ministry of education, and the practitioners (teachers) do not have a voice in the decision making process. Students' needs are not taken into account. Moreover, decision makers attach high importance to universality (centrality) rather than locality. However, the textbooks utilized in the private institutes provide an equal balance among all the skills and components of the language. These textbooks provide a chance to foster learners' autonomy so that they become independent in their learning. Moreover, the teachers are supposed to act as a coordinator in the private institutes, and they do not need heavy preparation because the pedagogical points are discussed in details in the teacher's manual.

Figure 2. The Amount of Representation of Communicative Principles in High School and Private Institute Textbooks (see PDF)

Conclusions

In the conclusion section of the study, the main research questions presented before will be answered one by one with responses.
1. To what extent do the high school textbooks represent the CLT features?
    The textbook analysis indicates they are not conductive to CLT implementation.
2. To what extent do the EFL institute textbooks represent the CLT features?
     In contrast to high school textbooks, private institute textbooks highly represent the CLT principles; that is, the five principles of CLT are present in the textbooks of this domain to a great extent.
3.  Are there any significant differences among high school and institute textbooks
      in terms of representing CLT features?
The results and findings of the study present the point that CLT principles are not utilized in the Iranian high school textbooks. Therefore, regarding the results of the study and due to the fact that textbooks designed by experts outside the foreign language instruction context do not fit EFL communicative teaching and do not fulfill language learners' needs, the following model is proposed for the Iranian context. Developing a model substantiates Tomlinson's idea that EFL countries should develop their own locally appropriate version of the communicative approach in terms of teaching methodology, materials development, and test construction. 
   
Figure 3. The proposed model of developing textbooks for the Iranian context

Pedagogical implications

The research outlined in the present study will, we hope, encourage an extension of research into textbook designers and teachers’ knowledge and understanding of CLT. A further hope is that this study might also re-ignite an interest in the nature of materials developers' practical theories of materials development.
Regarding the general ideas posed, there is a possibility that for the sake of highlighting crucial pedagogic implications of the study more, it can be claimed that teachers, materials developers, and test constructors can benefit from the results of the present study in particular.
   However, such a crucial and fundamental change takes time. Therefore, rather than simply jumping into and adopting the CLT principles, those involved in the field should carefully investigate the context and decide how CLT-oriented textbooks can best serve the needs and the interests of the stakeholders; that is, the countries belonging to the EFL context should borrow cautiously rather than buy wholesale CLT for their English teaching (Li, 2001). 

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