Abstract
This article examines the link between the contributions of EFL programs and sustainable community development in China by examining the recent developments in a small northeastern city.  It seeks to spur greater dialogue on the value of EFL education initiatives as a means toward greater community empowerment for developing nations throughout Asia, and the need for a more concrete assessment tool for governments to use in evaluating the cost/benefits of EFL programs in regard to community development.

Key Words: sustainable development, community empowerment, educational opportunities, globalization, social change

Introduction
This paper aims to provide a deeper understanding of EFL as it relates to collective community empowerment, improved quality of life, and the resulting contributions to national progress in China which can be applied to other developing nations across Asia. Currently, the nation of China is undergoing a tremendous surge of development with new government emphasis on economic, educational and structural reforms. As a rapidly developing nation China is rushing to train its future leaders in spoken English through a vast array of EFL initiatives. Over a quarter of all published books relate in some way to English language learning, and the command of English is considered an important means for providing communities with access to empowering resources for the nation’s future. 

   Questions posed by this study aim to analyze how EFL is serving to facilitate the community development process at the grassroots level by considering the recent development of one small city in northeastern China. The paper will address whether the EFL programs in that city are effectively contributing to community development and local empowerment. It will consider the role played by native and non-native EFL teachers in the context of local citizen empowerment and the cultural issues raised. Finally, the study will form conclusions as to whether the large proportion of money and educational resources being spent on EFL programs in countries like China where English is aggressively taught, can ultimately be justified. The study also proposes the need for a practical assessment tool to assist local governments in evaluating the cost/benefits of EFL programs in regard to attaining China’s national, social and human development goals. 

Background of the Chinese EFL system
The modern world has embraced English as the current ‘lingua franca’ of higher education, international commerce, tourism and diplomacy. International collaboration and global exchange depends on effective communication across the medium of language. China, one of the world’s most ancient civilizations with a recorded history of nearly 4,000 years, is home to over 1.3 billion citizens according to the National Bureau of State statistics (China Yearbook, 2004). Credited with some of mankind’s most important inventions including gunpowder, the compass, printing and paper, the massive nation holds an important place for developing an international economy and educational globalization in the future. Nevertheless, in spite of great strides in progress and the rapid per capita GDP increases, basic community development needs continue to be a pressing issue with 52% of the population living on US $2 a day, 62% not having adequate sanitation facilities, and 25% living without access to a safe water supply (Free the Children, 2003). 

   Some experts point to educational shortfalls and the comparatively low percentage of individuals with any level of higher learning as being the main hurdle for effectively meeting rapid development needs in China (Liaoning Province, 1999). Development patterns in other countries show that investment in human capital is a major factor for sustainable community development. No nation can maintain rapid growth without having a highly trained and literate labor force. With English gaining status as the primary global language in almost every trade and profession, literacy now often includes and assumes the need for competence in English. In fact the learning of English is quickly becoming a regular component of general education in the Chinese public education system. This is particularly evident by the stringent English requirements placed on all Chinese university students both for initial entrance and later eligibility to graduate. 

   Considering China’s rich history, diversity and potential as an emerging world power, there seems to be a need to examine the social, political, economic and cultural consequences of the high priority placed on English learning in relationship to community development and national capacity building. In China the State Council is the highest government administrative body responsible for carrying out the policies of the Communist Party and the laws enacted by the National People’s Congress regarding internal politics, economics, culture and education (The State Council, 2005). Before the People’s Republic of China was formally established in 1949, China had a population of less than 500 million, of whom 80% were illiterate. Adamson and Morris (1997, p. 1) describe how changes in the political environment of China have significantly influenced the development of English language curriculum and pedagogy. English syllabus and teaching materials developed after the civil war of 1949 changed significantly to reflect the new political, economic and academic climates of the time. In the same period the industrial expansion of the mid 1950’s rekindled an interest in learning English across much of China. The 1960’s brought more changes as Soviet educational models were rejected in an attempt to move education toward a modern professional orientation. This reform was followed by the Cultural Revolution from 1966-1976 which disrupted all instruction in schools across China. Recognizing the critical importance of national development and cooperation with the rest of the world, Deng Xiaoping instituted a new principle in 1983 that, ‘Education should be geared to the needs of modernization of the world and of the future’ (China in Brief, 2000). Ever since the 1990’s there has been a great push in China to educate children in the English language with Chinese leaders advocating EFL study as a necessity in acquiring global technological expertise and fostering international trade (Adamson & Morris, 1997, p. 3). 

   From the beginning of China’s opening up, English programs have been constrained by traditional teaching methods, outdated language materials, stress on rote learning methodology, and an emphasis on knowledge acquisition rather than language skill (Luchini, 2004, p. 2). In primary school students begin learning Basic English in the early grade levels with a focus on listening, reading and writing. As the students get older emphasis on ability in English is often targeted toward passing the nationwide standardized English proficiency tests. These tests are part of the national college English curriculum which was established to ‘develop in students a relatively high level of competence in reading, an intermediate level of competence in listening, and a basic competence in writing and speaking’ (College English Syllabus Revision Team, 1986, p. 1). All university non-English majors are required to study at least two years of English and to pass a standardized English assessment known as the College English Test Band 4 (Wang & Cheng, 2005, p. 5).

   Only recently has China seen an emerging trend to focus teaching methods on what students can do with the English language as opposed to a technical knowledge of language and grammar. This change is designed to meet the new demands of social and economic development in contemporary Chinese society where students with high language proficiency are highly sought in the job market. Leverett (2004, p. 1) traces the historical background of EFL to demonstrate how three distinct phases of modern English teaching have emerged in the 20th and 21st centuries with the use of phonetics, the acceptance of the scientific approach to language teaching, and the recent dominance of the communicative educational approach. Schick and Nelson (2001, p. 302) concur that the past 40-50 years have led to a shift in EFL education toward an oral proficiency model designed to help students achieve language skills for communicating their thoughts and feelings in common situations. Though China has lagged behind other countries in this trend, in many Chinese colleges and universities where native English teachers are employed the model is increasingly being followed to promote the students understanding and appreciation of global cultures, lifestyles, customs, values, attitudes and beliefs.

EFL in a typical small northeastern city
The northeastern city of Benxi is a small Chinese industrial city of over a million, divided into four educational districts. Within each of these districts there are a growing number of public and private schools within easy walking distance of most community members. Benxi has one university, fifty public secondary schools and three hundred primary schools (Liaoning Basic Data, 2004). At the primary level students begin learning Basic English and grammar to a limited degree in the first grade. As the students get older emphasis on the academic learning of English grows until most students attend at least two English classes per day by the time they reach high school. For those families who can afford it, students are enrolled in additional private English classes at night or on weekends. Some progressive public schools in Benxi have begun experimenting with bilingual education with around 100 schools across Liaoning Province teaching courses such as mathematics, geography and chemistry in the English language (China Education and Research, 2002). Approximately fifteen native English speakers are employed in the city in the private and public sectors to assist students with conversational English in preparation for future studies abroad and employment in the global marketplace. Government leaders also hope that continuing contact with foreign teachers will provide impetus for future international cooperation, joint-venture investment and further community advancement.

   China has established 2010 as the timeframe to achieve a basic education goal of lifting the country’s education level to a comparable standard with the world’s other relatively developed countries (Chinatoday.com, 2004). The Benxi local government has followed the central governments lead by highlighting the development of education as the basis for two major strategies to improve the quality of life and bring rejuvenation by relying on science and education for achieving sustainable development (China in Brief, 2000). In 1999 the Ministry of Education enacted an action plan aimed to vitalize the education system for the 21st century by accelerating the course of reform. In 2001 English was made compulsory in primary schools from Grade 3 and optional in lower grades. In Benxi new curriculum arrangements and education quality evaluations were instituted stressing children’s comprehensive ability alongside their performance on standard achievement tests (China Education and Research, 2002). These reforms have propelled Benxi and the larger area of Liaoning Province to educational gains in student enrollment at secondary schools from 31.1% in 1978 to 42.9% in 2003 and at colleges and universities from 1.2% in 1978 to 4.9% in 2003 (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2004).

   Linking these advances to English language learning, ninety percent of the primary and secondary schools maintain active EFL programs (Basic Statistics on Education, 2000). The EFL programs in China tend to follow three basic models as characterized by Graddol (2006, p. 86-88). The first model involves content and language integrated learning where English teaching occurs through the study of specialized content such as science or business. Such English courses taught for a particular purpose are especially popular with older more advanced learners at the college or adult level. The second model is labeled teaching and learning English as a lingua franca. The goal in this approach is to reflect the needs and aspirations of the Chinese learners themselves with many elements being effectively taught in a mother-tongue curriculum. This model includes EFL courses that are designed to help students in passing the required English examinations. The third model is designated as English for young learners, sometimes taught in an English-only classroom, where English is frequently being introduced at younger and younger ages. A growing number of private EFL schools tailor their programs to this comparatively large and profitable market of young Chinese students. 

   China has a long history of private education since the first private school was founded by Confucius more than 2,500 years ago (Lin, 1999, p. 3). During the time of the emperors, private education was the main means of preparing individuals for the imperial examination which selected talented people from all segments of society to assist in governing the country.  The appearance of a growing number of private EFL schools in modern China reflects significant changes in the country’s social class structure and the new demands being placed upon the education system (1999, p. 181). In a recent survey, over a quarter of primary and middle-school parents thought that private EFL schools were important in order to supplement the insufficiencies of the large public school classrooms (1999, p. 141). This fact has led to the establishment of many private language schools which boast smaller class sizes and a more efficient conversational learning environment for students. In Benxi private English schools have multiplied from less than ten in the city five years ago, to over fifty in 2005 (Hao, 2005). Some of these schools offer dynamic EFL programs and boast high language achievements by following the principle that, ‘Language learning is primarily a learner and learning-oriented activity’ (Eslami-Rasekh & Valizadeh, 2004, p. 1). 

Community Development Advances in Benxi
One commonly accepted goal of community development is to achieve a qualitatively better life with higher standards of living, greater economic growth and more sophisticated technology (Kenny, 1999, p. 9). In order to achieve this, community development involves incorporating both old and new ways of thinking and requires a cooperative effort between the people and government authorities to improve the economic, social and cultural conditions of the community (1999, p. 15). At the same time as educational gains in Benxi were realized, community development gains were seen as the overall livelihood of people increased with income percentage spent on daily necessities falling and the per capita disposable income rising to 6,981 RMB (United Nation Economic and Social Commission, 2006). Another indicator of a rising standard of living and improved quality of life on the technological side is the increase of telephone and mobile phone subscribers to over 42% of the inhabitants by 2003 with internet users also on the rise. Highly visible community improvements can be seen across the city with the building of new roads, apartment complexes and the development of a more reliable infrastructure for water, sewage and power systems.

   Nationally the per capita GDP has seen phenomenal growth from just $206 in 1980 to $1,100 in 2003 (United Nation Economic and Social Commission, 2006). Nevertheless there is still far to go for China’s community development as Shen (2003, p. 13) states that, ‘The term well-off society is commonly heard in China these days, and to some is a reality…with internet access, ownership of a comfortable apartment, and time for spiritual, educational and cultural pursuits…to the 28.2 million people still living in poverty, the concept of a well-off society is just a pipedream’. One broad means of measuring community development is through the United Nations Human Development Index which focuses on measurable dimensions of human development including living a long and healthy life, being educated, and having a decent standard of living. In the 2004 Human Development Report China was ranked 94th out of 177 countries showing that the nation still lags behind in its development agenda (United Nations Human Development Report 2004, p. 1). Many Chinese leaders see the greater educational opportunities and new ways of thinking available through EFL programs as a key factor in raising the standard of living for all people. 

   An additional side to community development advancements includes a number of elements that are much more difficult to quantifiably analyze and classify since they are simultaneously influenced by many factors. With the exposure to new ideas brought about through EFL as well as media and other influences, there is a resurgence of innovation springing up in cities across China as people try to seek out the best of both worlds. For example, in a growing number of hospitals medical treatment often combines traditional Chinese medicinal knowledge with Western methods to produce more effective results. The marketplaces are filled with racks of clothing that display a blend of western and traditional wear. Modern appliances such as refrigerators and microwaves are adding convenience to the lives of families by saving time and effort in the daily cooking chores. The previously common sight of people sitting on street corners washing clothes with their washboards is becoming rarer as modern washing machines find their way into homes. Such evidences of improvement in the people’s quality of life can partially be attributed to exposure to Western advancements through the medium of the English language. As more and more students study EFL and learn about world cultures, the desire to see progress and development occur within their family and community grows. Thus, through EFL, the students’ horizons are broadened beyond the confines of a single language and culture.

   One case study conducted by Simpson, Wood and Daws (2003, p. 277) on community empowerment and capacity building revealed the challenges in facilitating capacity building and community ownership of programs without creating unreasonable pressures on the community members. The study documents that many community development initiatives often falsely assume that community and individual resources of time, energy, and money are constantly renewable. ‘The establishment of a new initiative in a community requires careful consideration of the social impacts that may result – both short term and long term…each new initiative demands a share of already limited stocks of time and energy, and so the community’s social infrastructure shifts as individuals are forced to make difficult choices about where to direct their energies’ (2003, p. 280). As EFL swells to take a larger role in Chinese communities, criticism concerning the demand on resources, time and energy which could be spent in other areas such as native language learning and culture has increased. The challenge for China and other developing countries is how to maintain national culture and identity in the face of globalization and growing multilingualism.

Cultural issues in EFL
Throughout China the teaching of English has had an influence on social change by providing knowledge and democratic ideas from other cultures. Education has the ability to introduce individuals to knowledge which they can use collectively in their efforts to change society for the better. ‘Education for citizenship is concerned with the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values necessary for citizens to participate meaningfully in society’ (Usher, Bryant & Johnson, 1997, p. 28). Historically in China, the reigning emperors and the Communist Party tended to use government as an establishment to control society.  Growing social problems and the huge national population have demonstrated that the government can no longer effectively manage society without help from its citizens (Derleth & Koldyk, 2002, p. 12). Consequently, people now find themselves in a period of transition, struggling to learn what it means to be a Chinese citizen rather than a subject and to take more responsibility for their own problems. One example of positive changes occurring in China is the development of neighborhood community groups who serve as ‘self-managing organizations at the grassroots level’ with elected leaders relaying citizens opinions and needs to the government (2002, p. 6). Some leaders partially attribute such attempts to increase local democracy occurring in cities like Benxi to EFL programs which have brought educational advancements and access to literature stressing democratic ideals (Hao, 2005).    Kenny (1999, p. 283) also links community empowerment to the value of local education where people are free to make their own ‘informed decisions about the issues that affect them, their problems as they see them, and the ways in which they wish to resolve them’. Across China the teaching of English is interrelated to community development with individuals gaining global ideas and empowerment from other cultures just as the use of language is interrelated to the social relationships and the identities of the users (Graddol, 2006, p. 49). 

   In an era where the Chinese government is striving to pursue a scientific and systematic approach in their planning strategies toward education there are many opportunities for re-examining the goals of learning English as a global language. Nevertheless, even with more thorough government planning, new technological tools, modern textbooks and methodologies, teachers still remain central to improving English language learning.  Teachers are the main decision-makers at the classroom level who shape and modify the English curriculum based on their particular students’ needs. Native speaker norms are gradually becoming less relevant as global English lessens the distinction between native speaker, second language speaker and foreign language user. EFL expert Widdowson (1994, p. 377) states that with more non-native English speakers world-wide than native speakers, English is no longer the exclusive property of its native speakers. The spread of English around the world has led to the appearance of new variations of English in different locations as the language changes and develops. The language is also no longer seen as serving the interests of a particular country or promoting specific ideologies, but simply serves global and local needs as a language of wider communication (Gray, 2003, p. 24). The overarching and practical goal for learning EFL is the ability to function and communicate effectively in English with people who live in differing cultural contexts. This new focus places non-native English speaking teachers in the important position of role models for the learners. English speaking Chinese teachers who share the students’ linguistic and cultural background can uniquely provide encouragement as having already attained the English skills that the students highly desire (Oka, 2004, p. 4). Additionally, such bilingual instructors are in a good position to take ownership not only of the English language but also of the methods used in their local context in the teaching of EFL. With their knowledge and experience they are well-equipped to think globally while acting locally in the best interests of building and enhancing their own communities. 

   EFL programs utilizing native English teachers are generally financially more costly and include the controversial element of bringing imported values into the educational process. Miller (2003, p. 1) believes that values and morals play a significant role in EFL as the teachers interact with their students and curriculum. Foreign teachers may introduce outside elements from their differing backgrounds and frames of reference into the teaching of EFL where even their basic expectations of the students may be tied to cross-cultural or political issues (2003, p. 2). At the foundational level the cognitive skills used to acquire literacy in Chinese are significantly different from those needed in learning spoken English.  Rote learning is a standard classroom practice and has value for Chinese learning, whereas English requires a greater degree of analytic and principle-based learning (Graddol, 2006, p. 117). Yet the vastly different communicative task-based language teaching can be an asset with a foreign teacher who effectively uses the opportunity to stretch and broaden the students’ minds. Foreign EFL teachers in China often receive a great deal of awe and respect simply because they are so different from local teachers. This can provide opportunities to encourage students to reach beyond prevalent fatalistic attitudes and embrace new possibilities for development in their communities. The ever-present challenge is how to provide educational opportunities for positive social change and greater freedom without forcing colonial or western-style ideals upon the students.

   While some criticize any introduction of outside ideas by EFL programs, Dimmock and Walker (2000, p. 302) propose that, ‘Globalization makes the recognition of societal culture and cross-cultural similarities and differences more important’. They define globalization as ‘the tendency for similar policies and practices to spread across political, cultural and geographical boundaries’ where societal culture is the ‘enduring sets of values, beliefs and practices that distinguish one group of people from another’ (2000, p. 303). The exchange of information and ideas through the medium of English can be positively viewed as an opportunity to recognize and celebrate diversity. Though cultural assimilation is evident across China, traditional culture still permeates social life in many ways. One of the major cultural standards in China is that the society places more emphasis on the collective good and the influence of relationships rather than on the individualism that is commonly found among Western nations (Da, 2002, p. 21). Chinese culture also remains heavily influenced by hierarchy and seniority in contrast to the West where independence and equality are strongly advocated. The culture of any community indicates the elements that serve to bind that community together. Though values and norms are changing to reflect modern times, China is maintaining strong community bonds and continues to follow a path of change that demonstrates distinctly Chinese characteristics.
 
Discussion
Luchini (2004, p. 2) states, ‘Nowadays, pushed mainly by economic and political needs almost all trades and professions around the world demand people who are able to use a foreign language effectively as an essential tool for establishing meaningful communication, and an essential condition to be able to work in today’s global context’. The high priority and large financial outlay for EFL programs in China is generally due to the perceived global importance of English. The exact relationship between the spread and the teaching of English to modern-day globalization is a complex one. Graddol (2006, p. 9) contends that economic globalization encourages the spread of English simultaneously as the spread of English encourages globalization. ‘English has at last come of age as a global language. It is a phenomenon which lies at the heart of globalization; English is now redefining national and individual identities world-wide; shifting political fault lines; creating new global patterns of wealth and social exclusion; and suggesting new notions of human rights and responsibilities of citizenship’ (2006, p. 12). With English developing as a world language, the field of sociolinguistics is gaining notoriety as it seeks to better understand the relationship between languages and the societal context in which it is used (Holmes, 1997, p. 1). This field of study is highly relevant to the processes of national and community development as well as the local changes being experienced in China today. Knowledge is power, and English is one primary medium for educational advancements in China. Freire (1972, p. 53) in his classic text on education theorizes that, ‘…liberating education consists in acts of cognition, not simply transferals of information…’ where the goal is to develop the students’ ability to critically perceive the world and its changing reality.  The trend toward globalization in the 21st century is one part of a changing reality that highlights the importance of English as a global language. For China’s development English and community development seem to be entwined with EFL programs serving a number of social functions beyond simply imparting the skill for learners to access relevant knowledge (Hegarty, 2000, p. 451).  

   Since Deng Xiaoping’s economic reform policy of 1979, China has been one of the world’s fastest growing economies. China’s accession to the World Trade Organization in 2001 is continuing to provide major impetus for reforms, better education and community development initiatives. The widespread economic growth has translated into human development with EFL programs serving to some degree as catalysts in the process. An area for further study involves analyzing and determining the exact degree to which EFL initiatives are contributing to national progress. The ability to assess the benefits of EFL in a standard manner is important, both for future funding and for encouraging further improvements in the Chinese educational system of English teaching. Though the Chinese government once claimed to provide free education to all children, funding constraints in the early 1990s led the central government to shift responsibility for school funding to the provincial governments. This element of decentralization has contributed to some problems for public education and EFL programs in locations where there is a lack of local government emphasis on education. The increasing number of fees and levies charged by public schools has placed a larger financial burden on parents (Free the Children, 2003). Part of this increasing educational cost is tied to the investment in EFL curriculum and the employment of foreign or qualified non-native English teachers who can ensure proper pronunciation and conversational skills in the classroom. The development of a standard assessment tool for local governments would help them to proactively target funds in areas where the most benefit is received and also assist in long-term planning for improving education.

   Through a vast range of community development programs, China has seen remarkable increases in longevity, standards of living, and access to health care and education. Since 1979 the economic and social choices of the people have been significantly enlarged. In many cities decentralization has brought economic freedom closer to the people by giving back the right of decision-making within a market economy environment (Zhang, 2002).  With the highly selective, exam-driven public education system, English is critically important for achieving the required test scores for high school and university admission as well as attaining good jobs. Proponents of EFL programs stress that, ‘Bilingual education does not simply improve the students oral English…it improves their overall linguistic ability and enables them to think in a second language’ (China Education and Research, 2001). Young leaders who have graduated from public and private EFL programs are often better prepared to understand the viewpoints of people around the world and are at the forefront of introducing reform and change into the society at large.

Conclusions and Recommendations
China is experiencing major changes as it shifts from a rural/agricultural to an urban / industrial society and from a centrally-planned to a more globally integrated market-based economy (The World Bank, 2003). In cities where quality EFL programs have been implemented, like Benxi, they are helping to build community capacity, prepare future leaders for a global environment, and spur on national development. Surveys and statistics recording some of the tangible benefits could be developed and improved as an area of further research to benefit local government planning. Basic community development needs are still a pressing issue in China and evaluating exactly how EFL is helping within the process is an ongoing matter with a challenge similar to chasing an ever-moving target.

   In both EFL and community development strategies the goal ‘is to teach in such a way as to open up possibilities while responding to the community’s agenda, rather than to reinforce structures of control or domination …’ (Ife, 2002, p. 242). Education and the teaching of English is one means of empowering people within a community so that they have more options available for the future. Within the community, English education programs can raise the awareness level of residents giving them a greater understanding of the nature of citizenship and their responsibility for promoting the good of the community at large. Greater government investment in EFL programs could potentially support the national strategies for sustainable development as results in Benxi show that they are one important factor in preparing more university graduates to meet the growing needs of rapid development and keeping pace with world technological, economic and social advances. With local government support EFL programs can continue to strengthen and empower local communities by serving as a bridge for introducing new ideas and producing a better educated workforce that is prepared to deal with the changing issues of a global world. 

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