Abstract
This paper offers a task-based methodological framework for introducing Canadian culture and content to intermediate level Japanese learners. There are very few commercially prepared materials dealing with Canadian culture currently on the market in Japan, and what is available is informational, generalized and staid in nature and often focuses on only one skill such as reading or listening. Materials and methodology presented in this paper are designed to address a wider range of language skills and are issues based, meaning that students must comprehend different perspectives of target content materials, synthesize and consolidate these perspectives and produce language (meaningful output) demonstrating an understanding of the target issues in question. Example issues presented in this paper include bilingualism and French immersion education. The materials and framework draw from several established definitions of tasks but were originally prepared using Nunan's (1989) definition of a communicative task as "a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form" (p.10).

Key words: Task-based learning, content-based instruction, Canada, culture, classroom roles

Introduction
EFL teachers work in an incredibly wide range of contexts ranging from more structured language programmes to situations where language teaching is relegated to adjunct status. While the most common form of language teaching requires teachers to work with students on the four skills, other teachers are often charged with teaching courses leaning in the direction of content-based instruction. These include subjects like Intercultural Communication and Comparative Culture where the teacher must achieve some unspecified balance, often different from class to class, in getting important content aims across to students while at the same time helping them to develop their language skills. These content and language aims usually intersect at varying points along a spectrum, and are constantly negotiated and re-negotiated by factors such as curricular needs, student abilities and teacher beliefs. This paper describes how a task-based approach was used to develop materials and methods for a content-based course in Canadian Studies for second-year students in a Japanese university. The teaching methodology and supplementary materials presented here give special focus on input/output tasks that encourage students to interact with opposing viewpoints of several Canadian cultural issues.

The learning context
The method and materials proposed here have been developed to match the needs of lower-intermediate to intermediate level students from a Japanese university department, the Department of International Studies, offering a broad range of course options but no one particular area of structured, developed specialization. In this department, students can choose from courses including Economics, Intercultural Communication, Comparative Culture, Literature and Japanese Language Teaching to language courses in English, German and Chinese. There is a small annual cohort of approximately 20 students of the total yearly departmental intake of 90 students who are motivated to learn English but must choose from a hodgepodge of language course offerings lacking any coherent structure in which a student may try to advance from one level to the next. The majority of these English language classes are also taught in Japanese using the traditional grammar translation method. It was thus determined that the main part of the materials developed for the second-year bridging seminar on Canadian Studies be student-centered communicative tasks in which students used the language to exchange content-related meaning. In contexts like this, methods and materials often need to be developed and re-designed, in many cases from year to year, to match the particular learning needs of an individual group of learners. This has the positive effect of constantly infusing new tasks and materials into a bank of materials that the teacher can then choose from to match teaching aims with a given set of learners. However, because students self-select into this course, interest in both communicative language learning and the Canadian course content can be assumed as a starting point.

Tasks and content-based instruction
In EFL content-based language courses like the one described here, students need to be engaged in a variety of tasks and classroom roles as they attempt to gain a greater command of both the language and the target content. Nunan (2004) has summarized the benefits of content-based instruction as including an "organic, analytical approach to language development" and "a framework within which learners can have sustained engagement on both content mastery and second language acquisition" (p.132). He also notes how these benefits work toward increasing motivation and engaging the learner more actively in the learning process, and clearly states that CBI is very much in line with the principles of task-based language teaching. Brinton (2003, cited in Nunan, p. 132) identifies five principles of CBI:

At this point, rather than committing to whether a task need be more form centered or more meaning centered, it is perhaps more constructive to suggest that the shape and role of tasks needs to be flexible enough to fit not only the various contexts in which EFL is taught but also within a single teaching context and even within an individual course. Bygate, Skehan and Swain (2001) help in this regard by offering that "definitions of task will need to differ according to the purposes for which the tasks are used" (p.11). When placed within larger units of instruction, "loose definition tasks" can serve both the learner and the teacher more effectively when a particular context calls for flexibility and negotiation in what materials are to be presented, how they are to be taught and how classroom roles between teacher and student necessarily evolve in a given learning situation. Nunn (2006, this volume) has proposed a task-based framework based on units of instruction that leads students through tasks and exercises which may or may not focus on form through to "holistic outcomes in the form of written reports, spoken presentations and substantial small-group conversations that lead to decision-making outcomes". The same unit-based model can be successfully applied to more content centered courses in the form of flexible staged tasks which allow for instruction to be adapted to fit situational needs.

In a Canadian Studies unit where students are asked, for example, to develop a critical understanding of bilingualism in Canada, these tasks may include an introductory lecture listening task where the teacher's role is more central. It might further call for lectures to be supplemented or preceded by Dictogloss-style (Wajnryb, 1997) dictation form-focused tasks based on the subject material and profiling subject related vocabulary items where a small group of learners may work together to reconstruct a shorter dictated text as accurately as possible, or a pair-based collaborative note-taking task (see, for example, Nunn and Lingley, 2004, p. 16) based on the lecture itself in which students support each other in identifying the main points of the lecture and any key vocabulary, phrases and expressions. This lecture listening task might alternatively follow a later-stage holistic communication task - again, the key aspect is flexibility for the teacher in determining when a specific task should be introduced in a unit and whether it be language oriented or meaning oriented. The unit would also feature reading tasks in which the teacher circulates to monitor and check comprehension as students interact (individually and in pairs) with a prepared text, and higher level main tasks where learners take more central communicative roles exchanging and synthesizing meaning based on differing viewpoints of a single issue. These activities lead to a final student generated piece of language output either in the form of a written assignment or, more commonly, a presentation in which the student leads the seminar in an aspect of the Canadian issue researched independently. These staged tasks meet several of Brinton's principles, with prominence given to the integrated multi-skills approach to language teaching in which speaking, listening, reading and writing are all dealt with, often in conjunction with each other. The assessed final stage meets Breen's third principle which calls for students to take control of the learning process. Giving responsibility to the learner to lead a seminar for 20 minutes fosters a "learning-by-doing" environment and reduces dependence on the teacher. Also, the text materials in the main classroom tasks, the lecture listening tasks and those materials accessed through independent research all meet Brinton's fifth principle regarding authenticity.

Defining tasks
The varying definitions of tasks have been well covered in the literature in general and in this volume in particular, and need not be revisited here in any great detail. Ellis (2003) has summarized these nicely and has added his own concise definition as follows: "Tasks are activities that call for primarily meaning-focused language use" (p. 3). But what is more helpful here in assessing whether a set of tasks for classroom use adequately meets the requirements in fulfillment of a task-based approach are what Ellis (2003, pp. 9-10) has identified as the critical features of a task. These features are 1). A task is a workplan, 2). A task involves primary focus on meaning, 3). A task involves real-world processes of language use, 4.) A task can involve any of the four language skills, 5). A task engages cognitive processes, and 6). A task has a clearly defined communicative outcome. We shall return to this list of features later in assessing whether the materials and approach presented herein can be considered as comprising a fully task-based approach. However, for the purposes of this paper, what constitutes a task draws primarily on Nunan's (1989; 2004) definition of pedagogical tasks as "a piece of classroom work that involves the learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to express meaning, and in which the intention is to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form" (2004, p.4).

Task authenticity, text authenticity
What makes a task authentic? Guariento and Morley (2001, p.350) note the importance of student "engagement" in a task as essential in determining task authenticity. While most definitions of task authenticity refer to a relationship with real world applications such as reserving a table at a restaurant, it is argued here that what happens in, and what is needed for, the actual classroom is very much "real world" for a student. Note-taking tasks, practicing how to communicate meaning in the target language and tasks which develop target content understanding are all of central importance for students as they strive to succeed in their real world university learning situations and perhaps even prepare for overseas study that will require confidence in using the language of the classroom in a different real world. Nunan (2004) proposes that pedagogical tasks such as information exchanges can have an "activation rationale" designed "to activate their emerging language skills" (p. 20). When students are given the task of reading a short text, sharing the contents with a partner, listening to an explanation of what their partner has read about the same topic and then consolidating that information to share with a larger group of students, a variety of skills are activated and engaged to communicate a specific outcome ensuring task authenticity.

As noted, there are few commercially prepared Canadian resource materials on the Japanese market available for EFL students. What is available provides only a very generalized understanding of Canada and mainly employs single-skill language exercises as opposed to a multi-skills approach based on content. After a lengthy search only two textbooks, both published in the early 1990s, were found that deal with Canadian culture and both were set up, as most textbooks are, in a very linear way and focused on comprehension of a reading passage with supporting fill-in-the-blanks activities and manipulation of language form. One textbook relied heavily on listing Japanese translations of key words in the passages and neither provided any meaning-centered communicative tasks. Topics included standard fare such geography, history, food, sports, environment, houses and shopping. Given the dearth of Canadian content materials available, a task-based approach using authentic materials is suggested as best matching the language and content needs of learners.

Guariento and Morley (op cit) have noted the importance of using authentic materials to maintain and increase learner motivation by suggesting that they "give the learner the feeling that he or she is learning the 'real' language; that they are in touch with a living entity, the target language as it is used by the community which speaks it" (p.347). In a content-based teaching context, the use of authentic materials seems the obvious tack but in an EFL situation, some simplification is often necessary both for spoken and written texts. As we are using a flexible interpretation of tasks and how they can be used to either focus on form or meaning depending on need, it also seems appropriate to keep an open mind regarding authenticity. Although the sample texts provided here were written with the aim of helping students come to terms with different perspectives of the target content, they were nonetheless written with the understanding that the reader would be an EFL student. In other words, some simplification has been used in the short texts although every effort has been made to make the texts seem as authentic as possible - the language is natural, the meaning is clear and directly relevant to the content and the tasks. The texts for the French Immersion content were simplified from an article written by Cummins (2000), an authority on the subject. The texts for Canadian bilingualism are largely simulated - perhaps quite low on the continuum of what constitutes authenticity but nevertheless authentic. Spoken lecture discourse can also be simplified and controlled by the speaker but still the activity simulates authenticity when the lecture is not delivered at natural speed. We can add here that, as Guariento and Morley (op cit) note, even when spoken and written texts are fully authentic, "partial comprehension of text is no longer considered to be necessarily problematic, since this is something which occurs in real life" (p. 348).

Students use or are directed to a list of un-simplified, unaltered authentic materials when researching for final presentations. These may include newspaper articles, web sources or chapters of books. No claims are made here that students always prepare polished presentations to the class and, quite often, it is easy to see that many do not fully understand their own presentation content. However, the process of researching a topic in the target language and trying to communicate to classmates what they have been studying is an important one. When students fall short of being able to fully explain the aspect of Canadian culture for which they are responsible, the teacher may take on a more active role in helping the student through the final task of leading the seminar, drawing out information by questioning and facilitating peer questioning. The aim is always to ensure that the class has achieved an acceptable understanding of the Canadian content even though a learner-centered approach is being employed.

Canadian studies in the EFL classroom: Bridging language and content
Language teachers interested in introducing Canadian content can assume little or no "common knowledge" about Canadian issues, and the terms, phrases and cultural references used when discussing or teaching about Canada. Canadian Studies courses might employ any number of vocabulary items and expressions unique to the Canadian experience - the 1980 referendum, Bill 101, language police, the Conquest, the Quiet Revolution and the "Distinct Society" clause are but a few that come to mind that would need explicit pre-teaching, perhaps with the support of a glossary, in a unit on Quebec's place in Canada. Bernier (1997) notes that teachers must be especially sensitive to this in supporting ESL students in L1 contexts and suggests that techniques and strategies need to be adopted to open student access to the target content. This is all the more important in EFL situations where student access to the content requires even more explicit attention. This can be accomplished either with specific vocabulary teaching prior to addressing content in an authentic or near authentic way, or with tasks, activities or exercises that address content and language simultaneously. To keep flexibility at the forefront, we should even consider doing both, allowing for maximum recycling of the vocabulary items.

Even with intermediate level Japanese learners with good communicative command of English as assessed using institutionalized rating scales (Nunn, 2000) it can be assumed that students will have only a surface understanding of Canada and the many issues confronting contemporary Canadian society. Pedagogical responsibility in the teaching of EFL content-based courses demands that the teacher reconcile to the best of his ability the linguistic needs of the student with an approach to the content that challenges the intellectual abilities of the learner. Finding this balance and making decisions about what might need to be sacrificed either in terms of language or content remains the individual responsibility of the teacher who weighs any number of factors before settling on an approach. In the end, as Srole (1997) points out, "All good teachers know that they must reach their audience" (p. 105), and balance between content and language will naturally work itself out in each teaching context.

In spite of overall favourable impressions of Canada as a "safe" country with plentiful nature, what students know about Canada is usually limited to being able to name a few natural wonders such as the Rocky Mountains, Niagara Falls and the northern lights. Students might also be able to identify a couple of major cities, the odd entertainer such as Céline Dion and other things associated with Canada such as Anne of Green Gables and ice hockey. This initial limited understanding does not preclude the possibility of gaining a more in-depth understanding of issues central to contemporary Canada but it does suggest the need for a measured approach to the tasks used. For this reason, teachers may want to use tasks which help to build and practice the vocabulary needed for discussing Canadian issues more comfortably. This is what Snow, Met and Genesse (1989) have referred to as "content-obligatory language" and might include, in the materials provided here on bilingualism in Canada for example, such words as "Anglophone", "Francophone", "federal government", "provincial government" "unilingual", and "immersion". Bilingualism in the general sense will include still other content obligatory concepts such as "additive bilingualism", "subtractive bilingualism" and "relative competence".

While the penultimate and final stages of the task-based approach presented here require holistic use of language by students in the form of information exchange tasks and individual presentations with specific communicative outcomes, form-focused or micro-linguistic tasks are usually needed to familiarize students with the content-obligatory vocabulary and serve as a necessary foundation step in working through the staged progression of tasks that become more meaning focused. When the teacher aims to have students come to terms with meaningful content material, which in a Canadian Studies courses would include tackling issues such as Quebec's place in Canada, multiculturalism, language policy in unilingual Quebec, First Nations land claims, regional identity and immigration policy, foundation materials emphasizing pre-task listening and reading activities, language exercises and more form-focused tasks serve to strengthen what can be accomplished in the later meaning-focused tasks. Again, it is noted here that these language-centered tasks may also be re-incorporated at various stages of the unit, even revisiting them during the more holistic stages, where the teacher may interrupt a task to correct or clarify language items, or model accurate language use through interaction with students. This is also a feature of Nunn's (this volume) unit-based framework.

Methodology and materials: Getting started with Canadian content
The following readings are suggested as a later stage meaning-focused task for introducing students to two key Canadian issues - Bilingualism and French Immersion Education. These later stage materials and the tasks students are required to do with them would be preceded by preparatory vocabulary building exercises such as gap filling, glossary building, matching and dictation exercises which function to familiarize students with language needed for smoother interaction with content. These preparatory input activities also serve to mobilize learner attention and arouse interest (Skehan, 2002). An example of a dictation text is provided here which highlights target vocabulary while, at the same time, introduces an aspect of the target content. It is a fully authentic text, altered very minimally by deleting one word. The teacher reads the texts three times, twice by speaking slowly and once at natural speed. Students write down as much as can and then, working in groups of three, students try to collaboratively reconstruct the text with one group writing it out on the board. The teacher can then profile target vocabulary and language forms, as well as discuss pertinent content, explaining certain parts in more detail and fielding questions from the class.

Authentic dictation text for Canadian Bilingualism topic

After doing two or three such communicative dictation activities and other micro-linguistic language exercises, students work in pairs with each given a different perspective about the target content issue in the form of a short reading text. The student is required to read through and be prepared, without looking at the text, to explain the gist of the content of the text to his/her partner. The teacher's role in this task is to monitor the task, circulating among the students to check for understanding. While it is a meaning-focused task, students may have questions regarding form which the teacher may have to address. The pair is then asked to consolidate the information provided in both readings by first explaining to their partner the gist of their text and giving examples. As an interactive task, some negotiation of meaning by asking and answering questions and seeking clarification is required. When both students have fully explained and understood each other's text, they are then asked to work together to consolidate the differing positions of the brief texts and, finally, to briefly present a balanced explanation of the issue (bilingualism or French Immersion) to the larger class - collaborating and sharing information for a joint communicative outcome. See Table 1 for a detailed progression of the different task stages and roles teacher and student take during each stage. A lecture listening task is offered here as a follow-up later stage task but can also be used at an earlier stage of the unit as an introduction to the target content.

Issue 1: Bilingualism in Canada
Student A text:
Canada: A Bilingual Country
Canada is officially a bilingual country. Both French and English are spoken in Canada. All Canadian citizens can get government service in either French or English. Road signs are written in both official languages, French and English can be found on all products sold in Canada and both languages are spoken on airplanes, trains, etc. If you want to get a job working as a federal civil servant, bilingual ability is needed and politicians must use both. National radio and television broadcasts are provided in both languages. The Prime Minister of Canada must be able to use both English and French. Most of Canada is English. There are ten provinces. Eight of these are officially English speaking. One of the provinces, Quebec, is officially French speaking. Only one small province, New Brunswick, is officially bilingual with French spoken mainly in the northern part and English in the southern part. Canada is famous internationally as a bilingual country. Second language education is also very good in Canada. For example, English-speaking Canadians can go to French immersion schools to learn French.

Student B text:
Is Canada a Bilingual Country?
Although many people believe Canada is a bilingual country, this is actually a myth. Only a small number of Canadians can speak both languages fluently. There are more Francophones who can speak English than English-speaking Canadians who can speak French. Overall, only about 10% of all Canadians are really bilingual. The number of bilingual Anglophones is actually only about 7%. In truth, there is very little need for English in most parts of Quebec and there is very little need for French in most parts of English Canada. Many Canadians complain that providing services in both languages is a waste of government money. Very few English-speaking Canadians have interest in learning French and get angry when French ability is necessary to get good jobs. Many English Canadians also don't want to travel to Quebec. Also, the policy of official bilingualism is a policy of the national government but most provincial governments favour one language. For example, the government of Quebec has an official unilingual policy - French. Many people in Quebec see bilingualism as a danger to their French language and culture. In reality, we cannot say that Canada is bilingual.

Issue 2: French Immersion Education
Student A text:
The Benefits of French Immersion Education
Canada is famous internationally as a bilingual country. Second language education is also very good in Canada. For example, many English-speaking Canadians can go to French immersion schools to learn French. Immersion means to be completely involved in, or surrounded by something. For Canadians, learning a second language is becoming more important for getting a job. Government jobs, teaching, journalism and the service industry are examples of jobs that require French ability. The best way to get French ability in the classroom is to learn through French Immersion. There are three types of French immersion education: early, middle and late immersion. Early immersion starts in kindergarten or Grade 1. Middle immersion starts in Grade 4 of elementary school and late immersion starts in Grade 7, the first year of junior high school. Teachers use only French in the classroom. That means subjects like social studies, science and math are taught in French. Research shows that early immersion is the best way to become fluent in French. It is clear that students are bilingual after studying French using the immersion method. When a student gets 50-80% of classes taught in the French language, that means the student is getting a lot of language input.

Student B text:
Problems in French Immersion Education?
There is no doubt that immersion is one of the best classroom methods for learning a second language. French immersion education in Canada is well known a successful teaching model. But it certainly isn't perfect. English students who started French immersion in kindergarten or Grade 1 were measured for French ability after Grade 6. While their receptive skills (listening and reading) were almost like native French speakers, their expressive skills (writing and speaking) were clearly not as good as a French native speaker. There is also a high drop-out rate which means that a lot of students who start French immersion don't finish it. People in Canada are also starting to worry that students who enroll in French immersion are mainly from high-income families. Enrollment rates from lower income families are low. It is also interesting that more than 60% of all students who take French Immersion are girls. Another important point is that the only French that students get comes from the classroom with almost no French language use with family or friends. The language of the playground is usually English. Some parents also complain it is difficult to help their children with their homework because they don't speak French. Finally, one important problem with French Immersion is that there are often not enough qualified teachers.

Classroom roles for teacher and learner
In Nunan's (2004) analysis of tasks, the respective classroom roles of teacher and learner is a key feature. When teachers are willing to step back and let holistic communicative tasks develop as they may (and in many cases this means a certain sacrificing of both form and content), there is the assumption not only that the learner will be able to perform the tasks adequately but also the general belief that learners can be central, and will want to be central, to their process of learning language. The general learning context described in this paper provides minimal classroom opportunity for student-centered language learning based on using the L2 as the language of instruction. Therefore, some activities in which the teacher is central can serve dual preparatory functions with both teaching language form and in establishing the expectation of a greater student role because even the activities described as having a central role for the teacher very much involve the learner actively. Roles noted in Table 1 suggest the variety of roles teachers perform, including a central role, in support of student centered learning.

Table 1 Classroom roles during Canadian content task stages

Back to the features
Returning now to Ellis's six features of tasks, we can now determine if the set (or unit) of staged tasks constitutes a task-based approach to teaching Canadian content. Some the suggested early tasks and activities focus more on form and we must also admit that it may be necessary to sometimes deal explicitly with language and form even in the later stage meaning-focused tasks. However, the set of tasks as outlined in this paper is essentially a flexible work plan with dual aims of helping students build much needed communicative language skills and teaching target Canadian content. The tasks, especially the later stage tasks, involve a primary focus on meaning in that the target content is always central to the tasks. While the overall balance of the unit of tasks is meaning/content centered, form and language development is by no means ignored and is profiled where necessary. Authenticity of these classroom tasks and texts has been justified in terms of the "real-world" applications students may need the language and content for. Each of the four skills is practiced, usually in ways which call for students to employ different skills at one time. Another of Ellis's task features is that a task engages cognitive processes which is obviously what happens when students work through the penultimate interactive task stage of the lesson in which they work in pairs with short texts representing different perspectives of a single issue - comprehending, manipulating, producing and consolidating shared meaning through interaction is virtually cognition defined. The last of Ellis's task features refers to a clearly defined communicative outcome which is exactly what the latter meaning-focused task stages do in the form of an assessed two-part holistic and communicative language operation.

Conclusions
This paper has introduced a set of materials and a methodological framework for a task-based approach to CBI in an EFL context. Because of the difficulties in teaching content courses like Canadian Studies in EFL situations, a flexible approach to the use and function of tasks in content-based teaching in the context described is central. It calls for tasks that ultimately require students to produce meaning-centered communicative outcomes to be supplemented at the teacher's discretion by preparatory form-focused tasks and language exercises when needed. The framework presented is based largely but not solely on Nunan's (1989, 2004) definition of tasks and is further situated in relation to Brinton's five principles of CBI and Ellis's (2003) features of tasks.

Using tasks to facilitate content-based instruction in a Canadian Studies course for intermediate-level Japanese EFL students is offered here as one example of how task-based teaching can be used to meet divergent student needs. The approach and materials have been developed for a specific teaching context and are offered not as a method for all contexts but as an example of how method can be adapted and manipulated to meet the needs of a specific group of learners, and to show that teachers can create ways to use authentic materials to teach target content aims in content-based EFL courses. The methodology as described here attempts as much as possible to fulfill language and content aims in as balanced a way as possible but stops short of valuing one over the other. Each teacher (and student) will ultimately find their own balance in such an approach with the tasks used differently by each group of learners.

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