Abstract

Systematic and in-depth analyses of EFL learners' lexical errors in general and of collocation errors in particular are relatively rare. This study presents empirical data verifying the informal observations and theoretic assertions that EFL learners produce 'unnatural' word combinations. A total of 420 collocations were found in 42 essays written by Arabic-speaking university students majoring in English. About two thirds of these collocations (64%) were incorrect and 80% of these were lexical collocations as opposed to grammatical ones. Sixty one percent of the incorrect combinations could be due to negative transfer from Arabic. The fact that post-intermediate and advanced students of EFL have a relatively large stock of vocabulary might have motivated interlingual transfer in the belief that it would be easy to find the EFL equivalents of the Arabic lexical items. These findings suggest the necessity of direct teaching of collocations, inclusion of bilingual glossaries in the EFL course books, and designing bilingual collocation dictionaries.

Introduction
A learner's interlanguage is distinguished from the full-fledged language of a competent speaker by the fact that the former exhibits features indicating the incomplete mastery of the code. The learner's language is characterized by linguistically incorrect and/or contextually inappropriate forms and expressions. Both types of deviations are labeled 'errors' when they result from a lack of competence in the language. In addition to linguistic and pragmatic deviations, an interlanguage may exhibit certain forms that are linguistically and pragmatically correct but still sound 'unnatural' or 'strange', (Bridges, 1990; Emery, 1987; Swan, 1995). This 'strangeness' is captured by an inclusive definition of 'error' such as the one proposed by Lennon (1991, p.182): "a linguistic form … which, in the same context, would in all likelihood not be produced by the learner's native speaker counterpart."

While the field of language teaching and learning is rich in studies of foreign language learners' linguistic and pragmatic errors, (see e.g. Kharma and Hajjaj, 1997; Lott, 1983; Ringbom, 1992; Swan and Smith, 1987), research on 'strangeness' of linguistic forms and expressions is lagging behind. Impetus to studies on 'strangeness' is given by the fact that post-intermediate and advanced learners of EFL may not face structural and pragmatic problems, nevertheless, their language sounds 'unnatural, or 'odd'. Therefore, studies are needed such as that reported by Mahmoud (2003) where university students' errors in binomials were analyzed. The need for such studies stems from the fact that EFL students' lexical errors have not been given due attention, (see also Taiwo, 2004). The present study sheds light on EFL learners' errors in the use of collocations. Kharma and Hajjaj (1989) touched briefly on this area in an attempt to cover as many areas as possible.

They wrote a short paragraph on Arab students' collocation errors based on data collected by means of multiple-choice questions focusing only on verb-noun combinations. Only two options were given in some cases and four in other cases. The purpose of the present study is to collect, classify and analyze the collocation errors in the free written English of post-intermediate and advanced Arab learners of EFL, thus adding one more ring to the still short chain of studies in the area of lexis in general and the area of collocations in particular. An analysis of collocation errors can reveal the problems that EFL learners encounter and the causes of these problems in that area and help teachers and EFL specialists find appropriate ways of dealing with them in the EFL course.

Collocations: Definition and Importance
Most of the researchers who define collocation agree that it is a lexical unit consisting of a cluster of two or three words from different parts of speech, (see e.g. Baker, 1992; Benson, Benson and Ilson, 1997; Williams, 2002). Most of the definitions are paraphrases of Firth's (1957, p.183) definition that collocations are "words in habitual company". For the purpose of this study we define collocations as two words belonging to different grammatical categories to exclude binomials where the two words are from the same category and are connected implicitly or explicitly by a conjunction (e.g. and, or) or a preposition such as "in" or "by" (e.g. push and shove, sick and tired, here and there, in and out, life and death, hand in hand, dead or alive). Another reason for exclusion of binomials is that they were quantified and analyzed by the present writer in a separate article, (Mahmoud, 2003). Yet another reason is that very few binomials were detected in the data studied for the purpose of this study. This could be due to the fact that the students believed that many binomials were informal, hence they avoided them in their formal written production.

Regarding the types of collocation, there are open collocations and restricted ones. In open collocations, the words can cluster with a wide range of other words whereas in restricted collocations, they are fixed like idioms, (for more information see e.g. Al-Salmani, 2001; Emery, 1991). Such word combinations are also classified respectively as grammatical and lexical collocations. Grammatical collocations are combinations where a preposition is used with a noun, a verb or an adjective, (e.g. by accident, admiration for, agree with, account for, afraid of, amazed at). Lexical collocations include:

[1] Verb + Noun (e.g. break a code, lift a blockade)
[2] Verb + Adverb (e.g. affect deeply, appreciate sincerely)
[3] Noun + Verb (e.g. water freezes, clock ticks)
[4] Adjective + Noun (e.g. strong tea, best wishes)
[5] Adverb + Adjective (e.g. deeply absorbed, closely related)

(for more elaborate linguistic analyses of collocations see e.g. Al-Salmani, 2002; Baker, 1992; Emery, 1991).

Acquisition and correct production of such word combinations is a mark of an advanced level of proficiency in a language. As Lewis (1997, p.15) puts it "fluency is based on the acquisition of a large store of fixed or semi-fixed prefabricated items." James (1998, p.152) also agrees that the correct usage of collocations "contributes greatly to one's idiomaticity and nativelikeness." Taiwo (2004) sees lexical errors and grammatical errors as equally important. Sonaiya (1988) goes even further to say that lexical errors are more serious because effective communication depends on the choice of words.

After more than a decade of foreign language study, many Arab learners of English make collocation errors. According to Thomas (1984, p.187), this is "hardly surprising, given the vast scope and very idiosyncratic use of lexical items and collocations." As stated earlier, no elaborate studies that we know of have attempted to quantify and analyze Arab students' errors in the use of English collocations. What has been published on such errors so far is either a brief account based on informal observation (e.g. Kharma and Hajjaj, 1989) or a purely predictive contrastive analysis of collocations in English and Arabic (e.g. Emery, 1987; Farghal and Shunnaq, 1999). Therefore, in this study we intend to present empirical data verifying the theoretical claims and informal observations about collocation problems encountered by Arab learners of EFL.

Quantification and Analysis
The data for this study consisted of 42 essays written by male and female third-year Arabic speaking university students majoring in English. Regarding their proficiency in EFL and judging from their grades in the language skills courses, most of these students were post-intermediate and a few were advanced level. They were given a list of topics to choose from (e.g. Euthanasia, Mobile Phones, Arranged Marriage, Customs and Traditions, etc.). In addition, they were given the freedom to write on any social issue of their choice. The essays were written as a homework assignment and ranged from one and half to two single-spaced pages in length.

The students were not told that their use of collocations would be studied. Had they been told, they might have underused or overused such word combinations. As the essays were written as part of their weekly writing exercise, the language they produced was linguistically natural. A total of 420 grammatical and lexical collocations were found. These were listed and given to three native-speaking university teachers of English to check whether they were correct. The grammatical collocations amounted to 84 (20%). There were 336 (80%) lexical collocations, most of which were Verb+Noun and Noun+Verb combinations. The three judges agreed that 269 collocations were incorrect (i.e. unnatural), (see Table 1).

Table (1)

Number and Percentage of Correct and Incorrect
Grammatical and Lexical Collocations Found

	Correct	Incorrect	Total
	No. ............%	No.................%	No..........%
Grammatical	39.............9.28	45.............10.71	84...........20
Lexical	112..........26.67	224...........53.33	336.........80
Total	151...........36	269.............64	420........100

Note: The percentage is a function of the total number (420)

Table (1) shows that most of the collocations produced by the 42 students were lexical (336 - 80%) and most of the grammatical and lexical collocations detected were incorrect (269 - 64%). The incorrect grammatical collocations amounted to 45 (10.71%) and the incorrect lexical ones were 224 (53.33%). The students produced 151 (36%) correct collocations, 39 (9.28%) of which were grammatical and 112 (26.67) were lexical. The correctly produced collocations could have been acquired through exposure to the language or they might have been positively transferred from Arabic. However, some of the lexical collocations could not be due to interlingual transfer from Arabic. For instance, if the collocations valuable advice, bring about a change, full answer, break relationship, fatal accident were transferred from Arabic, the resulting collocations could have been *expensive advice, lead to a change, complete answer, *cut relationship, and * killing accident respectively. Needless to say, interlingual transfer does not necessarily lead to error (e.g. complete answer). Some correctly produced collocations such as reach an agreement, save marriage, critical moment, a white lie, an old custom and lose contact could have been picked up from the language input or positively transferred from Arabic.

A total of 269 collocations (64%) were incorrect; 224 (83%) of these were lexical and 45 (17%) were grammatical. In all of the incorrect grammatical collocations, the errors were cases of selection or addition of an incorrect preposition and most of them seem to be due to negative interlingual transfer from Arabic.

Examples:
* by this way (in) - * by money (for) - * in the phone (on) - * on contact (in) -
* ends with (in) - * remind with (of) - * spend money in (on) - * addicted by (to) -
* affect in health - * seeking for help - * contact with him -* responsible from (for)

The incorrect lexical collocations were 224 (83.27%); 210 (94%) of these were Verb+Noun combinations. The rest (14 - 6%) were Adjective+Noun combinations as in:

* large thinking - * artificial information - * complete life -
* a small accident

[1] Word Choice: where the choice of one word or both words is incorrect
(A) One word incorrect
* repair his mistake - * make the homework - * Al-Qaidah arrangement
* pray the prayers - * work your work - * rest a full rest

(B) Both words incorrect
* destroyed houses (= broken homes)
* basic machine (= important device)
* hurts the mind (= harms the brain)

[2] Word Form: where the form of a word is incorrect
* wants to get marriage * a famous musician band
* his economical problems * It was a failure marriage

[3] Contextual errors: linguistically correct but contextually incorrect
* bring a boy (= give birth to a boy)
* lose dignity (= lose virginity)
* finish business (= do business)
* carrying her baby (= pregnant with her baby)

As far as the sources of the errors are concerned, 164 (61%) of the incorrect collocations could be attributed to negative interlingual transfer. Interlingual transfer is an indispensable learning communication strategy employed by foreign language learners at all levels of proficiency, (see e.g. Bhela, 1999; Mahmoud, 2000; Odlin, 1989; Ringbom, 1987; Sheen, 2001; Tang, 2002). Another factor that may account for the interlingual errors in collocations is that post-intermediate and advanced learners have a relatively large stock of target language vocabulary. Hence they may think it would be easy for them to find equivalents to their mother tongue collocations. In the case of Arabic-speaking students, there are two varieties of Arabic from which they can transfer: modern standard Arabic (MSA) and non-standard Arabic (NSA), (see Mahmoud, 2000). The interlingual errors detected in the present study give support to Mahmoud's (ibid) findings. Many errors could be attributed to both MSA and NSA due to the similarity of the two varieties.

Examples:
* grow fear in him (= yazra') * do by his advice (= ya'mal)
* abbreviate time (= yakhtasir) * do a mistake (= ya'mal)
* make an accident (= ya'mal) * big responsibility (= kabeera)

However, some interlingual errors could be attributed solely to NSA because transfer from MSA could have led to the selection of different English equivalents as in:

* bring problems (NSA = yijeeb) (MSA : yusabbib = cause)
* say his opinion (NSA = yaqool) (MSA : yubdi = show - yu'abbir = express)
* make problems (NSA = ya'mal ) (MSA : yusabbib = cause)
* bring a high grade (NSA = yijeeb) (MSA : yahsul ala = get / obtain)

Some interlingual errors reflect students' problems within their first language. In other words, students confused two similar words in Arabic and that confusion was reflected in English. For instance, the error in * violate the promise could be due to the fact that the student confused yukhlif (= to go back on) with yukhalif (= violate). The error in *gain language could be due to the student's inability to see the difference between yaksab (= gain / win) and yaktasib (= acquire) in Arabic.

The intralingual errors were 105 (39%). These were regarded as intralingual because transfer from Arabic (MSA or NSA) would not have led to such errors as in:

* took my attention * make solutions * answer the mistake
* large thinking * transfer my feeling * artificial information
* produce a decision

Since phrasal verbs do not exist in Arabic, errors such as * break out problems and * run off pain could not be interlingual. Confusion with similar words in English may be the reason behind word combinations such as:

* connect our family (= contact) * restore notes (= store)
* medium of communication (= means) * adjust shops (= adjacent)

Conclusion and Implications:
This paper adds to the few studies so far conducted in the area of lexical errors of foreign language learners in general and the errors of Arab learners of English in particular. It provides empirical data verifying the belief that collocations constitute an area of difficulty in learning English as a foreign language. The findings of this study support the claim that Arabic-speaking students commit errors when producing collocations in English, especially the lexical combinations. Errors indicate that EFL students depend on interlingual and intralingual strategies to facilitate learning. Such strategies help in case of perceived linguistic similarities and lead to problems in case of differences. Most of the incorrect lexical collocations found in this study were due to interlingual transfer from Arabic. Impetus to such transfer is given by the fact that university students majoring in English have a relatively large stock of vocabulary. Hence they employ the interlingual transfer strategy whereby they replace the Arabic words with English ones. As a result, some collocations were produced correctly due either to positive interlingual transfer or direct acquisition from the language input.

As it is the case with errors in grammar and spelling, for example, there is no magic formula for correction of collocation errors. In addition to exposure to the language through reading and listening, learners of EFL could benefit from direct teaching and exercises aimed at raising awareness of collocations, (see Ellis, 1997; Williams, 2002). Depending on the students' cognitive development, simplified contrastive comparisons between English and Arabic collocations might help students see when to transfer and when not to. In fact, a survey of the English language course books - Our World Through English series (OWTE) - used at the preparatory and secondary levels in Oman was carried out for the purpose of this study. Only three short exercises are given in a six-year curriculum and these exercises incidentally touch on a few verb+noun combinations. The tasks are intended to practice stative verbs, plural nouns, and adverbs of frequency. More exercises are needed that focus on all types of word-combinations. Matching tasks and collocation grids such as those suggested by Channell (1981) and Nation (1990) could be included and recycled in the curriculum.

In addition to direct teaching tasks, a bilingual list of collocations could be included in the course books. This is in line with the students' tendency to transfer collocations from Arabic as reflected by the interlingual errors discussed earlier. The OWTE books used in the Omani schools contain glossaries of bilingual vocabulary items covered in each unit. These single words could be replaced by word combinations. Such bilingual lists of collocations might help in counteracting interlingual errors. They may show the students when to transfer from Arabic and when not to. They could also be a source of input for direct acquisition. Since collocations are fixed lexical units, as opposed to free single lexical items, they could be listed with their Arabic equivalents at the end of each unit or at the end of each course book instead of the bilingual vocabulary lists. In addition to the monolingual collocation dictionaries (e.g. Benson et al, 1997; Hill and Lewis, 1997), bilingual English-Arabic and Arabic-English dictionaries of collocations are needed. Such dictionaries could be useful not only to the learners of English but also to English-Arabic-English translators.

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